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世界简史(英文版)
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世界简史(英文版)
商品名称：世界简史(英文版)
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商品名称： 世界简史(英文版)
出版社： 中央编译
出版时间：
作者：(英)H.G.威尔斯
开本：16开
印刷时间：
商品类型：图书
编辑推荐语
THIS SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD is meant to be read straightforwardly almost as a novel is read. It gives in themost general way an account of our present knowledge of history, shorn ofelaborations and complications. It has been amply illustrated and everythinghas been done to make it vivid and clear. From it the reader should be able toget that general view of history which is so necessary a framework for thestudy of a particular period or the history of a particular country. It may befound useful as a preparatory excursion before the reading of the author's muchfuller and more explicit Outline of History is undertaken. But its especial endis to meet the needs of the busy general reader, too driven to study the mapsand time charts of that Outline in detail, who wishes to refresh and repair hisfaded or fragmentary conceptions of the great adventure of mankind. It is notan abstract or condensation of that former work.
赫伯特&乔冶&威尔斯（一八六六年至一九四六年）于一八六六年九月二十一日出生于英国肯特郡的小城市布朗姆雷。他曾进入科学师范学校攻读生物学，后来又进入一家新闻学院，毕业后成为读者，专门撰写有关科学方面的文章，并写过许多非小说类的科幻文章。一八九五年出版了中篇科幻小说《时间机器》，一举成名。后来他相继创作了《摩若博士岛》、《隐形人》、《世界之间的战争》、《首先登上月球的人们》、《神食》等大量科幻作品。威尔斯的科幻作品改变了凡尔纳科幻小说的乐观主义倾向，重新拾回了英国文学中那种对前途的忧虑和不安；但由于威尔斯的个性中存在着某种仁慈的气质，因此在其悲观的作品中总是伴有希望闪光，而且大部作品的结尾还是乐观的。
PREFACE&&Ⅰ.THE WORLD IN SPACE&&Ⅱ.THE WORLD IN TIME&&Ⅲ.THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE&&Ⅳ.THE AGE OF FISHES&&Ⅴ.THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS&&Ⅵ.THE AGE OF REPTILES&&Ⅶ.THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS&&Ⅷ.THE AGE OF MAMMALS&&Ⅸ.MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN&&Ⅹ.THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN&&Ⅺ.THE FIRST TRUE MEN&&Ⅻ.PRIMITIVE THOUGHT&&ⅩⅢ.THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION&&ⅩⅣ.PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS&&ⅩⅤ.SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING&&ⅩⅥ.PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES&&ⅩⅦ.THE FIRST SEA-GOING PEOPLES&&ⅩⅧ.EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA&&ⅩlⅩ.THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS&&ⅩⅩ.THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I&&ⅩⅪ.THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS&&ⅩⅫ.PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA&&ⅩⅩⅢ.THE GREEKS&&ⅩⅩⅣ.THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS&&ⅩⅩⅤ.THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE&&ⅩⅩⅥ.THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT&&ⅩⅩⅦ.THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA&&ⅩⅩⅧ.THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA&&ⅩⅩⅨ.KING ASOKA&&ⅩⅩⅩ.CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE&&ⅩⅩⅪ.ROME COMES INTO HISTORY&&ⅩⅩⅫ.ROME AND CARTHAGE&&ⅩⅩⅩⅢ.THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE&&ⅩⅩⅩⅣ.BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA&&ⅩⅩⅩⅤ.THE COMMON MAN'S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE&&ⅩⅩⅩⅥ.RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE&&ⅩⅩⅩⅦ.THE TEACHING OF JESUS&&ⅩⅩⅩⅧ.THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY&&ⅩⅩⅩⅨ.THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST&&ⅩL.THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE&&ⅩLⅠ.THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES&&ⅩLⅡ.THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA&&ⅩLⅢ.MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM&&ⅩLⅣ.THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS&&ⅩLⅤ.THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM&&ⅩLⅥ.THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION&&ⅩLⅦ.RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM&&ⅩLⅧ.THE MONGOL CONQUESTS&&ⅩLⅨ.THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS&&L.THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH&&LⅠ.THE EMPEROR CHARLES V&&LⅡ.THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS OF GRAND MONARCHY AND&&PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE&&LⅢ.THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS&&LⅣ.THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE&&LⅤ.THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE&&LⅥ.THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON&&LⅦ.THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE&&LⅧ.THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION&&LⅨ.THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS&&LⅩ.THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES&&LⅪ.THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE&&LⅫ.THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY&&LⅩⅢ.EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA,AND THE RISE OF JAPAN&&LⅩⅣ.THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914&&LⅩⅤ.THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE,AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18&&LⅩⅥ.THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA&&LⅩⅦ.THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD&&
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你无法忽视的10个web设计元素
发表时间：浏览量：2003评论数：1挑错数：0
10Web Design Elements that You Shouldn’t Overlook
--你无法忽视的10个web设计元素
When it comes todesigning and building websites, it never seems to happen fast enough.
在涉及到设计和创建网站时,设计本身没有想象的发展那么快。
Given this fast pace, many small details that areeventually required to build the website are often left out of the designprocess. While these details might be minor, they are what take a website fromnice to truly awesome.
These details are often easy to miss because they don’tdrive the overall look and feel of the website. The problem is that as yourdevelopment team works through the design, it will be forced to design andcreate these elements for you anyway.
鉴于这种快节奏的开发,许多小细节，在最终的网站构建过程中，常常会被设计忽视掉。虽然这些细节可能是次要的,但这些细节却能够将一个网站带来从优良到优秀的质的转变。这些细节通常很容易错过,因为他们不能左右整个网站的外观和体验。问题是,在开发团队开发过程中使用这些设计产品,无论怎么样，你都可能会被迫的重新设计和重建这些元素。
You could adjust the production cycle so that thedevelopers have time to return these assets to you, but why not just get it alldone up front so that the process is that much cleaner?
& &等到开发人员有时间了，才把问题反馈给你，你再去调整时间周期，为何不在出现这个问题之前，就把它做好哪？
Even worse, the development team might decide to forgeahead and just create the assets as they go.
& &更郁闷的是，开发团队可能就仅仅使用现在的设计，委曲求全的去开发，而不会提出任何问题。
While many developers have a keen eye for design, thecreative who is charged with designing the website should ultimately be the onewho plans for these elements. Planning ahead for the subtlest nuances can havea profound impact on the quality of the final product.
尽管很多开发者也会有对设计敏锐的眼光，但是负责设计网站的创意是谁产生的就应该有责任去做好这些元素的设计计划，不能寄希望于每个人的思路一致。对这个细节的提前设计，将会对最终产品的质量产生深远的影响。
Every element covered in this article stems from aquestion that a developer would ask the designer if an element were missingfrom the design.
Let’s dig into the 10 key elements to keep in mind as youpolish your website.
本文中涉及的每一个元素都源于一个问题,如果设计中没有某一个元素的设计，应该和设计者尽快沟通。让我们在网站深入研究这10个关键元素。
While styling the various states of a link is indeedrather basic, you might be surprised by just how often all of the extra detailsare overlooked. Include the following states for all links on the page:
虽然链接的多种多样的样式都是很基本的，但是你还可能会很惊讶的发现，很多细节是被我们忽视的。在web页面上，包括以下几个链接状态：
Normal 正常
This is the def i.e. one that is not being hovered over orbeing clicked or pointing to a URL that the user has already visited. This isthe link format that the majority of designers always cover.
链接的默认状态：也就是：鼠标没有悬浮、没有点击过、或者是没有访问指向任何URL的状态。这个链接样式常常给设计师覆盖。
Visited 已访问
This is a link that is not being hovered over or clicked but whose target has been visited by the user.
这是一种用户已经访问了这个标签，但是现在没有悬停在这个链接上或者没有点击过。
Active 激活
An active link is one that is currently being clicked by the user. Mostdevelopers will replicate the hover state here if a style is not provided tothem.
激活状态的链接是当前正被用户点击中。如果设计者不提供该状态的样式，大部分开发者会用悬停状态覆盖这个样式。
Hover 悬停
Finally, the hover state is what the link looks like when the user mouses overit. This and the normal states are the ones most designers prepare for.
One detail that is frequently overlooked is that thesevarious states need to be planned for all regions of a website. For example,many websites have dark body copy against a light background, but the contrastis reversed in the footer. You need to plan for all of the various contexts oflinks found throughout the page.
最后是悬停状态，这个状态是用户用鼠标放在链接上看到的状态。
这个和正常状态，是大部分设计师准备最多的2个样式。
一个容易忽视的细节是：这个设计应该考虑网站全局的设计，比如说：有点部分背景是黑色，
On , for example, we see basic red linksinside the content region and basic white links in the footer below. Again, atiny detail but important nonetheless.
在上面的图示中，主要内容区域的默认链接是红色，在页脚部分则是白色链接样式。这是一个很小的细节问题，在页面效果显示中却是非常重要。
2. Forms 表单
For many designers, the configuration of forms iscritical and impossible to overlook. Yet, for many others, it seems to come asa distant afterthought.
The problem with the latter attitude is that forms oftenrepresent the only real way to convert visitors into customers. And withoutproper planning and design, the usability of these forms could fall flat,crippling the only conversion point of the website. Preparing for theseelements is essential, even if they seem much less pressing to clients thancolor, branding and images.
对于大部分设计师来所，表单的配置是至关重要，不可忽视的。然而，对其他人来说，这似乎是一个很遥远的想法。后者的态度是有问题的，表单是常用的而且是唯一能够把访客变成我们客户的方式。没有合适的规划和设计，表单的可用性将会大大降低，失去了网站重要的唯一的转换点。提前设计这些元素是非常重要的，与用户看到的颜色、品牌、图像同样重要。
Two of the most important considerations when laying outa form are:
在表单的定制中，有2个最重要的项目：
Form label标签
Forms typically collect personal data that users are reluctant to give out. Assuch, properly informing users of the exact purpose of the form is wise.
表单通常是手机一些个人数据的，而这些数据用户是不很愿意提供的。正因为此，用适当的方式提示用户我们收集的确切目的是明智的。
Inputfields and labels 输入框和标签
Secondly, plan for how the input fields of the form will be laid out on thepage and how the labels for those fields will be styled and oriented relativeto the fields.
其次，在表单中输入框如何布局，以及每个输入框对应的标签，是如何定义样式和输入框关联起来的，这些都需要设计。
When left to their defaults, forms can look awkward. Butwith proper preparation, the website will look seamless and be much moreeffective. Let’s look at a great example that must have started with goodplanning:
如果使用默认值，表单看起来就不伦不类的。但是要是有所设计，网站就会看起来比较流畅和有效。让我们看一个经过设计过的非常好的例子：
This business-critical form on
wasclearly well thought out. The entire mission and purpose of the page has beencarefully considered. From the title and introduction to the layout of each setof fields, with their labels and control styles, this form is a model ofplanning.
Planning for forms actually leads us to several otherconsiderations…
的这个关键业务表单很明显是经过深思熟虑的。从标题和简洁每个字段的布局、标签以及样式控制，都是一个很好的设计模板。
表单的设计，事实上能让我们有很多的思考。
3. Buttonbehavior 按钮行为
Buttons can be used throughout a website for variouspurposes, but they too seem to be often neglected, as do the various states ofa button. The four states of a button are:
出于不同的目的，网站中有很多地方使用了按钮。但是有时候也会忽视了它的多种状态的用法。按钮的四个状态如下：
Default 默认
This is the default state of a button, waiting to be clicked. Most designerscover this one but miss the others.
按钮的默认状态，处于待点击状态。大部分设计者会覆盖掉这个样式，但是忽视了其他状态 ：（。
Hover 悬停
The hover state is seen when the user mouses over the button. This state ishelpful to indicate to the user that the button is an actionable item.
悬停状态是用户鼠标放在按钮上但是没有点击时的状态。这个状态起到，提示用户这个按钮是激活状态的可以点击的作用。
Click 点击
Once the user clicks the button, this state visually indicates to them thatthey have clicked it. Providing this visual cue can help minimize thefrustration of users.
点击：一旦用户点击了按钮，这个状态从形式上提示用户已经点击了。提供这一视觉提示可以帮助减少用户的沮丧。
Disabled 不可用
The disabled state of a button is perhaps the least used but can be veryhelpful to developers. Seldom is this state planned unlessthe designer has prepared a validation process for the form (see the nextsection).
Much like the various states of links, be sure toconsider the various states of the buttons used throughout your website. Frompop-up log-in forms to
fieldsto newsletter sign-up forms, all of these buttons will need correspondingstyles.
按钮的不可用状态应该是开发者很少用，但是很管用的一个状态了。
这种情况很少见， 除非是设计师已经编写出表格确认流程。
就像各种状态的链接的使用,一定要在整个网站中，考虑的各种状态按钮使用。从弹出登录表单字段,以时事通讯来搜索注册表格,所有这些按钮将需要相应的风格。
4. Formvalidation 表单验证
An important related detail is form validation. This isthe critical point where the website communicates the user requirements anderrors in a form. There are three core things to consider:
表单验证也是一个很重要的细节。这个很关键，因为网站通过表单与用户的需求、错误进行交互。有3个核心问题需要考虑：
Requiredfields 必填项
All required fields should be indicated. Most often, this is done with anasterisk, as seen on:
必填项应该是很明确的、大多数情况想，用*标识出来。看这个例子：
Real-timevalidation 实时验证
Some validation can be done in real time as the user completes the form. Thiskind of validation informs the user as quickly as possible of any problems withthe data they have inputted. This can be accomplished very well with this :
一些验证可以在用户操作表单的 过程中实时完成。这种验证，能够在他们输入的数据出现任何问题的时候，尽快通知他们。 这个插件挺好使的。
Post-backvalidation 回发验证
This kind of validation happens after the user has submitted the form. Thestyle used for real-time validation is often repeated here, but another optionis to group all errors into a single message, as seen on :
这种验证是用户点击了提交按钮提交了表单后产生的验证。这里也可以使用实时验证的样式，或者集中展示到一个统一的信息框里。比如 ：
5. Statusmessages: errors, warnings, confirmations, etc. 状态消息:错误、警告确认等。
Users will usually need some sort of feedback afterperforming an action on your website. The most likely scenario is aftersubmitting a form, but many other events could occur as well. Carefullyconsider your website and the actions that users might take, and plan for themessages that the website will need to communicate.
用户在你的网站上执行某一个操作后，通常需要看到某种形式的反馈。大部分应用场景是提交表单之后，但是其他事件也有可能需要反馈。仔细考虑在网站中，用户可能采取的操作，并设计好这些反馈消息，这些消息能够用户与网站之间的交互体验。
On , we see a validation message that couldeasily serve as a global style for error messages. And with a slight change incolors and icons, it could also be used for subtler warning or evenconfirmation messages:
通过的例子来看，作为错误信息的统一样式，可以很容易在网站中使用。再进行一些颜色和图标上的修改，就可以作为提示或者确认信息来使用。
6.Extending the background on larger screens 在大屏幕下的背景拉伸
Depending on the style of the website, the backgroundelements could be a trouble spot for your developers. Most backgrounds aresimple and don’t require much preparation, but some are complicated bygradients, patterns and imagery.
依赖于网站的样式，背景元素可能是开发者面对的一个麻烦点。大多数的背景是简单的，无需太多准备。但是如果使用了渐变、模式或图片的话，就比较复杂了。
Considering that big monitors are becoming more and more commonplaceand that most designs are planned for a 960-pixel-wide baseline, a lot ofscreen real estate is left open. If your background includes anything remotelycomplicated, it behooves you to plan how it will extend to fill larger screens.
In the example that I built below, I had to accommodatefor a wood texture that extended in all directions. Not the sort of thing youwant a heavy-handed developer tackling.
现在的大显示器越来越多，很多的设计也是以960像素为基线了。很多屏幕的左边区域都是空白的。如果你的背景包含了比较复杂的元素，那你就理应考虑怎么为大屏幕进行扩展了。下面示例中，我不得不调整木质纹理，达到填满屏幕的效果。这事可不是笨手笨脚的开发者能够解决的。
7. BaseHTML elements 基础Html元素
For copy-heavy websites, the design and styling of baseHTML elements are fundamental and should not be overlooked. But on manymarketing-oriented websites that have a busy layout and a distinct visualstyle, the base elements are forgotten. And of course, the developer never getsfar into creating a website before having to produce a standard page templateanyway.
Here are the base elements to always plan for:paragraphs, headings 1 through 6, unordered and ordered lists, tabular data,form fields, images, and bold and italicized text.
对于大部分站点，基本html元素的设计和风格都是基本的，也不应该被忽视。
但是一些市场导向的站点，都有一些复杂的布局，反差很大的视觉风格，基本元素的设计都忽视了。不管怎么样，开发者开发网站之间，都应该有一个标准的页面模板。下面是基本元素的设计：段落、标题1到6,无序和有序列表,列表数据,表单字段、图片和粗体和斜体文本。
On many websites I work on, I put together a style guideto aid the developers, something like this:
在我设计过的很多站点中，我会把这些元素集中到一个样式模板页面，方便给开发者以指导。如下：
8. Websiteemails 邮箱
One thing I don’t see any designer plan for iswebsite-generated emails. Such a basic element is easy to miss because it isnot typically the core focus of the website. And yet email is a powerful toolthat can promote and extend a service.
还有一项，就是很多设计者没有考虑网站的邮箱。因为email不是网站的核心，就很容易忽视这个元素的设计。但是email是网站促进和拓展服务的一个很强大的工具。
My suggestion is to carefully review the contents of thewebsite at the planning stage to look for any emails that might be sent. Someof the most common are:
我的建议是：在设计中，考虑任何可能使用email的地方。一些常见的地方有：
· Mailing listsign-up confirmation,注册确认的邮件列表
· Registrationconfirmation,注册确认邮件
· Form-completionconfirmation (such as for a contact form),表单完成确认（比如联系方式表单）
· Orderverification after a purchase.购买订单确认
If you really want to blow the minds of your clients anddevelopers, prepare an email marketing template for the website, too. You’llprovide users with a seamless transition from the website to the inbox, andyou’ll maintain careful control over the branding in its various forms.
如果你真想做好网站邮件，那么还要准备好邮件营销模板。
9. Pagestretching页面拉伸
The question of how a design will stretch to accommodatechanging content is also rarely dealt with but could be critical, depending onthe style of the website. Let’s look at an example where this could have been messed up:
页面拉伸以适应内容的改变，很少用，但是也很重要。例子如下：
has a tight home page. Thisdesign does not allow for much movement or change in the content. Everythinghas a specific size and placement. So what happens if the owners decide toreally lengthen the welcome message or add an image? Fortunately, they haveplanned for this. As you can see in this mock-up, I have edited the page toinclude double the text. The page extends perfectly and accommodates for it:
网站Full Moon BBQ有个紧凑的主页，每个元素都有特定的尺寸和位置。那么如果决定加长欢迎信息或者增加图片，将会发生什么？幸运的是，他们考虑了这一点。看明白了嘛？可以登录网站一试。
Preparing alternate versions of a layout with much morecontent can be extremely helpful in demonstrating how to plan for such ascenario.
准备好多内容的布局的版本，你忽略了吗？
10.Animations: pop-ups, tooltips, transitions, etc. 动画：弹出框、工具提示、渐变等
On a standard HTML and CSS website (i.e. without Flash),animations and transitions are so easy to overlook. And when overlooked, theywill often not even be accommodated at all. So, if animations are critical,your best bet is to provide developers with a sample of how they should work sothat the product functions as it should.
标准的HTML/CSS网站，动画和转换很容易被忽略。一旦忽略，效果会很不友好了。
Some of the most common places animations crop up are in:
Those little pop-ups when users mouse over elements.
当鼠标经过某元素时的提示
Imagerotators
Home page slideshows are all the rage, and a wide range of options is availablefor transitions and styles.
首页幻灯片至今仍很流行，对于渐变与风格可有更多的选项。
You can style not only the lightbox itself, but also the transition to it.
Each of these animated elements has a distinct visualstyle that must be accommodated all on its own.
不单单使用Lightbox本身，也可以加上渐变等效果。
每个动画元素都有明显的视觉风格，比如适合它本身。
Why shouldI care?
Many of the elements presented here seem more helpful tothe developers than the designers. To be fair, this is partially true: if youprepare all of these elements ahead of time, the developers will love you.These are the kinds of things that developers get tired of asking for or ofhaving to figure out on their own.
Still, by doing all of this work ahead of time, you keepdevelopers from guessing, and you thus maintain control of the design. And bymaintaining control of the design, you have a much greater chance of being ableto add the kind of polish that turns an ordinary website into an outstandingone. Some designers refer to this as the secret sauce that makes their designssing.
And if that isn’t motivation enough, consider this.Designers who plan ahead this well and deliver a package this complete are justfundamentally more valuable. They not only create a higher-quality product, butthey also reduce the cost of production. This means there is more room forprofit, which of course makes everyone happy.
So, keep all of these finer details in mind, and have funplanning your website. Frankly, these details are half the fun of designing forthe web, that ever-changing medium that accommodates user interaction andchanging content.
这里列出的大部分的元素，对于开发者比设计师更有用。如果你提前准备好这些元素，开发者会对设计师的工作另眼相看。如果你是开发者，同样做到这一点，那么老板对你也会是刮目相看。
记住并做到这些，意味着你至少享受到了web设计工作一半的乐趣。
Patrick McNeil is a freelance writer, developer anddesigner. In particular, he loves to write about web design, train people inweb development and build websites. Patrick’s latest book project is ; it includesmany additional topics along the lines of this article. You can find out moreabout it on . FollowPatrick on Twitter .
What do you design for that everyone else seems toforget? Have you ever presented extras like these to your clients? What sortsof thing do you find developers always asking you to add to a design?
相关译文来自无觅插件
很多只至关重要但又容易忽视的细节，是要引起重视，分析的很到位，顶！
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