Dialogues with Death： The Last Days of
·期刊原文Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the BuddhaBy Matthew DillonPhilosophy East and WestVol. 50, No. 4 （October 2000）&& pp. 525-558Copyright 2000 by University of Hawaii PressHawaii, USAp. 525 Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the Buddha Philosophy East and West, Vol. 50, No. 4 （October 2000） The tiger, having taken the young bhikkhu [Buddhist monk] up to a rocky place, a broken edge over a hollow spot inaccessible to the bhikkhus, began to devour its prey from the feet upwards. The pursuing bhikkhus said: "Good man, there is nothing that can be done by us. The extraordinary spiritual attainment of bhikkhus is to be seen in such a place as that in which you are."-- From Buddhaghosa's commentary [1] on the Satipatthāna Sutta （Majjhima Nikāya 10）Socrates, himself dying from the feet upwards, would have understood the monks' admonition in the opening passage above. In Plato's version of his master's final hours, Socrates emphasizes the point that "those who truly grasp philosophy pursue the study of nothing else but dying and being dead" （Phaedo 64a, cf. 67e）. In the course of explaining this remarkable assertion, he goes on to develop at great length an even more remarkable thesis -- remarkable, at any rate, for one of the founding fathers of the Western philosophical tradition: after the death of the body, the immortal soul is reborn according to the merits of its former life, gradually purifying itself as it evolves into pure essence, leaving all corporeality behind. Not Buddhist doctrine exactly, but very much in the mainstream of Indian thought as it was developing more or less at this very time, the fifth century B.C.E., the heart of the so-called Axial Age. The similarity has not been lost, at least on comparative philosophers: recent articles have compared the doctrines of the Phaedo with the Katha Upanishad, Yoga, and the Tibetan Book of the Dead. [2] The most obvious comparison, however, has not yet been attempted: the juxtaposition of the Phaedo with the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the canonical account of the Buddha's final days. [3] The present essay is intended to begin to fill this gap.&&& Such a comparison becomes even more intriguing when we consider that these two great teachers were roughly, perhaps even exactly, contemporaneous. Lacking a historiographical tradition, Indian chronology is extremely difficult to establish, and in fact, despite India's reputation as one of the world's most ancient civilizations, the first historical event to emerge from the realm of legend is the death of the Buddha, and even that date is controversial. Recent scholarship has moved in the direction of downdating the Buddha's lifetime by a century or more from the standard 566-486 to circa 450-370 B.C.E., which would make him a junior contemporary of Socrates （whose dates are fixed rather firmly at 470/469 to 399 B.C.E.） or else, following the more traditional date, Socrates' predecessor by only one generation. [4]&&& Moreover, both men must be seen against the broader background of their own culture and society, and here we are struck by a number of parallels. In both Greece and India around this time, a highly developed mythopoetic worldview, perhaps ap. 526&Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the Buddha Philosophy East and West, Vol. 50, No. 4 （October 2000） thousand years or more old, was being challenged by a great flowering of philosophical systems. Opposing schools debated the nature of reality: some devised theories of the atom, and saw matter as the b others sought still others rejected the concept of absolute truth and saw everything in relative terms. Taking a firm stand amid the welter of such ideas, Socrates and the Buddha developed a philosophy of the "Middle Way" and devoted their lives to teaching their vision of the Truth to all who would listen. Yet neither wro in both cases we are dependent on texts composed by gifted disciples after their masters' passing. Most strikingly, these texts are recorded as dialogues, a form which allows for more dramatic presentation of character and theme, but perhaps also indicates something essential: for Socrates, the necessity for dynamic interaction with other minds as an approach to the Truth, and for the Buddha, the necessity to adapt his teaching by appreciating every inpidual's unique needs and capacities for understanding.&&& Do such parallels imply historical connections? The "floating" chronology of India does not allow us to establish a priority that would in turn suggest a possible influence of one culture on the other at this early period. Cultural contact cannot be ruled out: communication over such great distances was greatly facilitated by the Royal Road of Persia, stretching from Ionia （cf. "Yona," the Pāli word for "Greek" in later Buddhist texts） to India, and the Greeks do show some selective knowledge of India and its culture at least from the late sixth century onward. [5] But as for the actual exchange of ideas, solid evidence is lacking prior to Alexander's invasion of northwestern India in 327 B.C.E. （According to Plutarch's Life of Alexander, chapter 64, he staged a debate between Greek philosophers and Indian "gymnosophists" or "naked philosophers" -- perhaps Jains. [6]） For the earlier period we are given some tantalizing hints: Pythagoras （sixth century B.C.E.） is said to have traveled to India, and to have espoused the theory of transmigration of souls. Even more to the point, an Indian is said to have had a philosophical conversation with Socrates at Athens. However, the testimony in both cases is highly suspect. For the Socratic dialogue with the Indian, the source is late （third to fourth centuries C.E.）, and the anecdote is too brief to be of much value. [7] As for Pythagoras, he would seem an excellent intermediary, especially as he is usually said to have been an important influence on Plato （though not by Plato himself, who mentions him by name only once [8]）, and particularly on the doctrines of the Phaedo, [9] but so little substance lies behind the famous name that no firm conclusions can be drawn, although we will inevitably be invoking his name frequently in this study. [10]&&& In any case there is admittedly nothing to suggest a specifically Buddhist connection: Greek knowledge of India tended to be fairly generic and culturally focused on the B the word Buddha （in the form Boutta） does not occur until the third century C.E. [11] But Buddhism itself grew out of that milieu, and although accounted a "heterodox" movement （largely because it is not based on the authority of the Vedas）, it shares much with mainstream Brahmanism. [12]&&& The purpose of this study, then, is not to claim any direct influence of one teacher on the other, but rather to explore the affinity that seems to exist betweenp. 527 Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the Buddha Philosophy East and West, Vol. 50, No. 4 （October 2000） them （and, by extension, between Greek and Indian thought）, using two texts that conveniently coincide in subject matter. Of course, due allowance must be made for the vast difference not only in the nature of the principal characters （one a man who claimed to know nothing, the other an enlightened being with preternatural knowledge and power） but also in the texts themselves. Besides the fact that one is a literary work of the highest artistry and the other an oral text of composite origin, it is obvious that neither document can be accepted at face value as a historically accurate record of the events it claims to describe.&&& Dramatically, the Phaedo represents not the actual death scene but a conversation some time after the fact between Socrates' pupil Phaedo, who had been present, and a certain Echecrates, who eagerly asks for a complete description. Surprisingly, Phaedo explicitly mentions that Plato himself was not present, apparently due to illness （59b）. [13] Moreover, the composition of the dialogue is usually dated （admittedly by using subjective criteria like substance and style） to a vaguely defined "middle period" （380s-370s?）, in the company of the Republic, Symposium, and Phaedrus, among other dialogues. [14] By this time most scholars would agree that Plato had matured as a philosopher in his own right, under the influence of other thinkers besides Socrates （in our context, especially Pythagoras） and that consequently it then becomes impossible to ascribe, with certainty, a given belief to the "historical" Socrates. [15] An even greater gap separates the date of the Buddha's parinibbāna （"final nirvana"） from the ultimate form of the Mahaparinibbāna Sutta （hereafter MPNS）, which, like all the suttas of the Pāli canon, purports to be an eyewitness account of the master's words and deeds, and begins with the words "Evam me sutam" （"Thus I have heard"） -- the "I" being the Venerable Ananda, a favorite disciple of the Buddha. These recollections were then maintained entirely by an oral tradition, until they were finally written down in the first century B.C.E. in Sri Lanka, hundreds of years and thousands of miles from the time and place of the Buddha. [16] Even if we allow for the best efforts of Ananda and the recitation guilds, such a tradition is suspect and liable to contamination, especially with respect to additions and embellishments.&&& Bearing such provisos in mind, we may begin our examination of these two extraordinary texts. Since the structure of the documents is not parallel （most notably, in contrast to Plato's careful observation of the unities of action, time, and space, the more diffuse MPNS covers the last several months of the Buddha's life and touches on a great number of doctrines, but most often in extreme summary form）, the structure of our investigation must be somewhat arbitrary. I will follow the order suggested by the "Three Jewels" of Buddhism （Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha） -- the Master, the Teaching, and the Community of Followers.The MasterHaving briefly discussed some of the general questions regarding the figures of Socrates and the Buddha, it remains to be seen how they emerge as characters specifically in the two works under discussion. We will focus on the following threep. 528 Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the Buddha Philosophy East and West, Vol. 50, No. 4 （October 2000） questions: what qualities do they display as teachers, how do they relate to the people around them, and how do they face their impending deaths? In all three respects, both men are characterized by an extreme openness.Dealing with StudentsAs teachers, this openness extends first of all to their intellectual approach. Despite their own apparent conviction, they take pains to include interaction with their students -- this is, after all, the very essence of the dialogue form -- and make clear that no question is out of bounds.&&& In the Phaedo, the first three arguments for the soul's immortality follow closely on one another, and their conclusion clearly marks an important s it is followed by a long silence, as most of the company are convinced （84c）. Finally, two of the main interlocutors start a conversation between themselves. Socrates notices this, and asks:Why, surely you don't feel my account inadequate? Of course it is still open to a number of doubts and objections, if you want to examine it in detail. If it is something else that you two are considering, but if you feel any difficulty about our discussion, don't hesitate to put forward your own views, and point out any way in which you think my accou and by all means make use of my services too, if you think I can help at all to solve the difficulty. [17] （84c-d）In fact, after some hesitation, Simmias and Cebes make two elaborate objections so persuasive that not only is the previous sense of agreement thrown into confusion, but all hope of ever attaining certainty seems lost （88d）. Socrates rises to the challenge. Says Phaedo to his companion:Socrates had amazed me often in the past, Echecrates, but never did I admire him so much as at that moment. Of course, that he had something to respond was perhaps nothing unusual. But what astonished me most was first, how kindly and gently and pleasantly he took the young men' next, how quickly he perceived the degree to which we were aff and finally how well he healed us and called us back, as it were, from our flight and defeat, and turned us around to follow him and join in examining the argument. （88e-89a）Socrates in fact begins with a bit of misdirection: he toys affectionately with Phaedo's hair, and playfully compares their cooperation with the mythical duo of Heracles and Iolaos. At that point he begins a serious discussion of the power of argument and its dependence on the human factor: we must not reject logical analysis as a tool simply because we are not adequately skilled in its use. Under no circumstances should one follow those （evidently the Sophists） who believe that nothing is certain and everything fluctuates as the tide （89d-90e）. In particular, he questions his own motives: in his present situation, it is to his advantage to believe in the soul's immortality, and such selfishness can cloud one's judgment （91 a-b）. He concludes: "Follow my advice: think little of Socrates, and much more of the truth, and if you think what I say is true, then agree, but if not, oppose me with every argument you can" （91 c）.p. 529 Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the Buddha Philosophy East and West, Vol. 50, No. 4 （October 2000） &&& Socrates' humility here is partly ironic, after his fashion, but his point is of paramount importance: the truth is real, and logos is the best means to achieve it. And of course he does succeed, at least on an intellectual level, in vanquishing those formidable objections. But his manner is almost as important as his means: gentle, personal, wisdom blended with compassion.&&& The Buddha is likewise determined to deal with any and all questions pertaining to his dispensation. Moments before his passing, he addresses the assembly of monks:"It may be, monks, that some monk has doubts or uncertainty about the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, or about the path or the practice. Ask, monks! Do not afterwards feel remorse, thinking: 'The Teacher was there before us, and we failed to ask the Lord face to face!'" At these words the monks were silent. The Lord repeated his words a second and a third time [the lines are repeated verbatim in the Pāli text]. Then the Lord said: "Perhaps, monks, you do not ask out of respect for the Teacher. Then, monks, let one friend tell it to another." But still they were silent. （MPNS 6.5）In fact there are no doubts. The Buddha knows that these monks have truly understood, and are on their way unfailingly to liberation （6.6）. But he has kept open the possibility for dialogue until the last possible instant.&&& Any such dialogue would have served only to clarify what had already been said. Earlier, the Buddha had made clear that he had withheld nothing of importance in his teaching, apparently in contrast to other teachers of his time. In response to Ananda's expectation of a final statement about the Order, the Buddha （referring to himself as the Tathagata, a frequent honorific title） replies: "But, Ananda, what does the order of monks expect of me? I have taught the Dhamma, Ananda, making no 'inner' and 'outer': the Tathagata has no 'teacher's fist' [18] in respect of doctrines" （2.25）. Thus, according to this text, there is no esoteric side to the D for those who have followed so far, there is nothing more to add. For others, the door is always open. On the very night of the Buddha's passing, a "wanderer" （i.e., one who has abandoned his home in search of truth） named Subhadda attempts to receive teaching from the Buddha, and asks Ananda for an audience. Ananda refuses: "Enough, friend Subhadda, do not disturb the Tathagata, the Lord is weary." This exchange is repeated a second and third time, until finally the Buddha overhears and bids Ananda to let the man in, since he is seeking enlightenment and will quickly benefit from the Buddha's replies to his questions （5.25）.&&& Subhadda is indeed quickly convinced, and ordained on the spot （the usual formalities are waived） by the Buddha himself -- the last disciple to be so honored. True to the Buddha's prediction, he swiftly attains perfection.&&& We should also note that the substance of Subhadda's conversation with the Buddha concerned the "rival" teachers of the day, six of whom are mentioned by name. The key question: "Have they all realized the truth as they all make out, or have none of them realized it, or have some realized it and some not?" The Buddha's response is interesting: he refuses to criticize the other teachers personally, yet makes it clear that their doctrines will not lead to liberation:p. 530&Dialogues with Death: The Last Days of Socrates and the Buddha Philosophy East and West, Vol. 50, No. 4 （October 2000） Enough, Subhadda, never mind whether all, or none, or some of them have realized the truth. I will teach you Dhamma, Subhadda... In whatever Dhamma and discipline the Noble Eightfold Path is not found, no ascetic is found [who will reach enlightenment]... Those other schools are devoid of （true） but if in this one the monks were to live life to perfection, the world would not lack for Arahants [enlightened beings]. （MPNS 5.26-27）As with Socrates, the truth admits no compromise: openness to question does not imply that all paths are equal. But again we should note the manner in which rival doctrines are rejected: there is no rancor, no sectarian jealousy, no ad hominem attack. The teacher is subordinate to the D what counts is the Dhamma' it is a very practical matter.Dealings with OthersThe openness in the teacher-student relationship is extended also to those beyond the inner circle of devotees （on the Greek side, we may contrast the extreme secrecy surrounding the teachings of Pythagoras, Empedocles, and the Orphics [19]）. For example, both men behave in exemplary fashion toward those who provide their last meals. The circumstances are of course quite different: the executioner has deliberately prepared the hemlock for Socrates, while Cunda the smith is unaware that the dish he has specially prepared for his honored guest i but both masters know that the dish is fatal.
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